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He has written heavily on law and technology, including a number of cutting-edge pieces for The New York Times. He currently serves as Co-Chair of the OCBA's Product Liability Section and may be contacted at HYPERLINK "mailto:MichaelBaroni@hotmail.com" \t "_blank" MichaelBaroni@hotmail.com.TEXT: [*18] "Naked x-ray" machines. Pens with cameras the size of a pin-head. Cell phones with GPS tracking. Secret voice-stress analyzers used to determine if an employee is lying. Chip implants and office "bugs". Technological advances have drastically altered the modem workplace in recent years, far beyond a plainly-visible video camera mounted in a common area or over a cashier's head. Employers now have the ability to obtain relatively inexpensive "spy" technologies to track, monitor, and record employees and their communications anytime and anywhere -- from cubicles to water coolers, executive offices to home offices, and Internet chat rooms to corporate cars. Employees are often fully exposed, whether they know it or not. General Principles of Employee Privacy It is well established that employees are entitled to a "reasonable expectation of privacy." This is a vague standard, however, requiring an analysis of all relevant factors from the viewpoint of a reasonable person, a viewpoint which is shaped by ever-changing societal norms. Furthermore, the right to privacy is not absolute; it is always balanced against competing interests, such as the desire of an employer to prevent theft or employee drug use. Even the most fundamental of privacy rights, such as protection against involuntary sterilization or freedom to pursue familial relationships, can conceivably be over-ridden by a compelling government interest. Also, absent a statute to the contrary, private entities conceivably could successfully defend invasion of privacy claims with a compelling interest. California Privacy Law In California, an employee has three primary theories for bringing an invasion of privacy claim: (i) The California Constitution; (ii) California's Privacy Act; and (iii) the common law tort of intrusion. California Constitution: Privacy is a specifically referenced right under Article 1, § 1 of the California Constitution, and it applies to both governmental and private entities. A plaintiff must establish the following for a claim: (i) a "reasonable expectation of privacy" under the circumstances; (ii) a legally protected privacy interest (which is fundamental to personal autonomy); and (iii) conduct by the defendant that constitutes a "serious" invasion of privacy. Defendants can escape liability if they show they had a legitimate interest and used the least intrusive means given the circumstances. (See HYPERLINK "http://www.lexisnexis.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/us/lnacademic/mungo/lexseestat.do?bct=A&risb=21_T1988804371&homeCsi=156111&A=0.6038149799553917&&citeString=85%20Cal.%20App.%204th%20345,at%20353&countryCode=USA" \t "_parent" Jeffrey H. v. Imai, Tadlock & Keeney (2000) 85 Cal.App.4th 345, 353.) California Privacy Act: The Privacy Act (enacted 1967) provides civil and criminal penalties for anyone who engages in unauthorized wiretapping or eavesdropping with an electronic amplifying or recording device. (See HYPERLINK "http://www.lexisnexis.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/us/lnacademic/mungo/lexseestat.do?bct=A&risb=21_T1988804371&homeCsi=156111&A=0.6038149799553917&&citeString=CA%20PEN%20631&countryCode=USA" \t "_parent" Penal Code §§ 631 and HYPERLINK "http://www.lexisnexis.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/us/lnacademic/mungo/lexseestat.do?bct=A&risb=21_T1988804371&homeCsi=156111&A=0.6038149799553917&&citeString=CA%20PEN%20632&countryCode=USA" \t "_parent" 632 (criminal) and § 637 (civil)). The Act covers all "confidential" communications provided that the parties being listened to or recorded did not consent (consent can be implied where people should have reasonably expected their conversation to be recorded or overheard, such as with customer help-line calls or employees openly conversing in company lunch rooms). Common Law Tort of Intrusion: Intrusion requires a reasonable expectation of privacy (objective standard) and a "highly offensive" invasion thereof (reasonable person standard). This tort includes unwarranted physical intrusions into one's home or hospital room, as well as sensory intrusions like eavesdropping, wiretapping, and visual or photographic spying into one's personal life. (See HYPERLINK "http://www.lexisnexis.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/us/lnacademic/mungo/lexseestat.do?bct=A&risb=21_T1988804371&homeCsi=156111&A=0.6038149799553917&&citeString=18%20Cal.%204th%20200&countryCode=USA" \t "_parent" Shulman v. Group W Productions, Inc. (1988) 18 Cal.4th 200). Employer Use of "Spy" Technologies Thanks to rapid technological advances, employers now have greater opportunities than ever to invade employees' privacy. To what extent is it legal for employers to utilize such spy technologies? Spy-Cams: Some laptops and computer monitors now come with tiny cameras embedded in the frame of the computer screen. Company cars can also be easily equipped with spy-cams, as well as almost every object in an office from a plant to a lamp. Some employers see this as a magnificent new opportunity to monitor employees at any time. Most employees, on the other hand, would be less than enthusiastic about possibly being watched every second -- particularly those who work outside of the traditional office. Imagine an un-showered home-office employee working on a computer in his or her underwear, or an employee using a company van for extra-marital trysts, or a traveling salesman catching up on e-mails from a hotel bar, all being watched without their knowledge. . . not a pretty sight. A recent case, HYPERLINK "http://www.lexisnexis.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/us/lnacademic/mungo/lexseestat.do?bct=A&risb=21_T1988804371&homeCsi=156111&A=0.6038149799553917&&citeString=2005%20Cal.%20App.%20Unpub.%20LEXIS%208699&countryCode=USA" \t "_parent" Crist et al v. Alpine Union School District ((2005) 2005 Cal. App. Unpub. Lexis 8699), provides new guidance. In Crist, the District installed a concealed video surveillance system in an enclosed, albeit unlocked, office where two female employees worked and often changed or performed "hygiene" functions. The [*19] primary significance of Crist is the court's statement: "Employees can expect that an office provided for their use, to which they may retreat and close the door while performing their work duties, would not normally be subject to secret video surveillance by their employer." If the office has a door lock, the expectation for privacy increases. But if it has a window through which others can see, the privacy expectation is diminished. Certainly, then, a home office would be completely off limits from visual snooping. The only instances where spy-cams would be legal is if the employer (i) has a policy of notifying its new hires of such visual monitoring (preferably obtaining the employee's written consent) and (ii) has a demonstrable compelling interest that is tightly tailored to that interest (e.g., a defense contracting firm where employees are working on issues of national security or an Arizona-border company with a fleet of vans used to prevent the smuggling of illegal drugs or immigrants). It follows, then, that most uses of spy technologies to watch employees would be illegal, such as a boss who installs an eraser-head-sized camera in a worker's office clock simply out of paranoia, curiosity, or lust (e.g., knowing that a certain female employee changes clothes after work in her office). Also, the California Labor Code provides that cameras in employee bathrooms, locker-rooms, and changing rooms are illegal. Finally, a justification for visual spying does not necessarily grant an employer the right to aurally snoop. Vocal "Bugging": Employers are now able to listen to, and record, employees' conversations, including in corporate cars, outside the office building, and even inside home offices (since laptops and cell phones can easily be equipped with remote listening capability). In general, employees have a reasonable expectation of privacy whenever they reasonably perceive that their conversations are being conducted in private. Even where a conversation isn't entirely private, there may still be a reasonable expectation of privacy against employer intrusion. In Crist, for example, the court stated that "an employee might expect that workplace conversations may be overheard by other nearby employees, while not expecting that conversations will be electronically intercepted and overheard by a supervisor in another part of the building." (See also HYPERLINK "http://www.lexisnexis.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/us/lnacademic/mungo/lexseestat.do?bct=A&risb=21_T1988804371&homeCsi=156111&A=0.6038149799553917&&citeString=20%20Cal.%204th%20907,at%20918&countryCode=USA" \t "_parent" Sanders v. American Broadcasting Companies (1999) 20 Cal. 4th 907, 918-919).) Another recent case, HYPERLINK "http://www.lexisnexis.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/us/lnacademic/mungo/lexseestat.do?bct=A&risb=21_T1988804371&homeCsi=156111&A=0.6038149799553917&&citeString=2005%20Cal.%20App.%20Unpub.%20LEXIS%201495&countryCode=USA" \t "_parent" Fischl v. New Horizons Computer Learning Centers, Inc. ((2005) 2005 Cal. App. Unpub. Lexis 1495, *, *22-23), makes it clear that an employer violates employee privacy by monitoring personal phone calls absent a compelling justification. In Fischl, Fischl's boss knowingly upset Fischl by telling him to report every day at 7:30 a.m. This directive directly conflicted with Fischl's need to take his son to school. The boss thereafter listened in on a personal phone call during which Fischl referred to company management as "Nazis." Fischl was immediately fired. The key implication of Fischl is that employers may monitor calls where employees are informed and consent to it, and a legitimate business purpose for doing so exists (as with call center employees). An employer has no right, however, to listen in on calls of a personal nature or to randomly tap employee conversations -- in fact, doing so is a crime in California (the Penal Code states that such conduct "cannot be tolerated in a free and civilized society"). Thus, listening in on the private conversations of an employee through spy technologies is an illegal invasion of the employee's privacy. A boss cannot, for example, "accidentally" leave her cell phone in another person's office so she can listen into the employee's office remotely. Also prohibited are sound-enhancement devices used to listen to employee parking-lot conversations or listening devices installed in company automobiles. Even where the monitoring of business conversations might otherwise be legal, once an employer hears that the conversation is of a personal nature, he or she must immediately stop listening. Some employers use voice-stress analyzers without an employee's knowledge. Typically this is done during an investigative interview by a human resources department to help determine if an employee is lying. This spy-tech tactic clearly violates an employee's privacy rights. In addition, use of a lie detector is specifically prohibited by HYPERLINK "http://www.lexisnexis.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/us/lnacademic/mungo/lexseestat.do?bct=A&risb=21_T1988804371&homeCsi=156111&A=0.6038149799553917&&citeString=CA%20LAB%20432.2&countryCode=USA" \t "_parent" Labor Code § 432.2. Tracking Employee Movements: It has been clearly established that there is no privacy violation where an employer tracks its employees through GPS systems in company cars provided that the company properly informs employees of its tracking policy and limits the actual monitoring to business purposes. The rationale is that companies have a legitimate business interest in knowing where their cars are at all times and where their employees are during work hours (particularly employees whose job functions are mainly outside of the office, such as traveling salespeople or service [*20] techs). The same reasoning would likely apply to cell phones with GPS tracking. Employers should, however, resist the urge to track an employee's off-hours activity. The employee ID card has also undergone drastic technological advances. Now, ID cards using infrared technology can track an employee's location at any time. Thus, a company can watch the movements of every employee, no matter where they are in the office, like a 3-D video game. Some companies, like CityWatcher.com, have gone even further by implanting chips into the flesh of their employees. These chips can track employees wherever they go -- even outside of the office. While no company can require such a bodily invasion after a person is already employed, employers can require it as a condition of employment if a serious and legitimate business purpose is being served (for example, a high-tech company that makes such chips for the CIA needs to ensure security). There are endless tracking device possibilities. For example, biometric thumb-print scanners can be installed on bathroom stall doors before opening, so that employers can monitor how long or frequently employees use the bathroom each day. For some employers, such detailed tracking may be an irresistible means of increasing efficiency. If an employee spends 35 minutes a day in the bathroom, fire them and get someone who only spends 10 minutes! Scanning People and Their Personal Possessions: As a society, we are well used to passing our bodies and possessions through airport or court house security devices. Metal detectors are even used in some high schools to prevent carrying weapons onto school property. But what if these types of devices become commonplace in the office? Most likely, people--and the law--would accept the notion of scanners in the corporate world if the masses were convinced that they were needed for a legitimate safety purpose. But what about the newest wave of scanners, such as "naked x-ray" machines which provide a virtual outline of a person's body beneath their clothes--fat wrinkles, body piercings, the dimensions of one's privates, all in plain view, and potentially recorded for all time? While this technology is now being pushed for in airline security, how long before this technology is used in the corporate environment, ostensibly to prevent employees from stealing or from bringing in drugs or weapons? It is quite plausible that certain companies (like defense contractors) could employ such technologies on the grounds of [*22] national security, but how long before society accepts the idea of being routinely scanned just to enter the office? Big Brother PC: By now, employees are well used to the idea that employers can legally view employees' Internet usage, read their e-mails, or view their phone-call log. A recent case, HYPERLINK "http://www.lexisnexis.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/us/lnacademic/mungo/lexseestat.do?bct=A&risb=21_T1988804371&homeCsi=156111&A=0.6038149799553917&&citeString=131%20Cal.%20App.%204th%201027&countryCode=USA" \t "_parent" People v. Jiang ((2005) 131 Cal. App. 4th 1027), demonstrates that the extent of an employee's expectation of privacy largely depends on the wording of the employer's policy. If the policy doesn't specifically state that the employee has no expectation of privacy in personal computer files, then the employer may be violating privacy by snooping into any files marked "personal". In general, however, employees have no expectation of privacy on their employer-provided computers -- even if those computers sit in home offices (as in Jiang). More advanced technology is rapidly being deployed in offices, such as software which tracks an employee's computer keyboard usage through "key strokes" or "key words" (which can be used to see how much work can employee does). Employers are also more frequently reviewing the personal e-mails and instant messaging of their employees. If an employee is instant-messaging friends or writing personal e-mails on their personal Yahoo! account, the boss has the effortless ability to watch and read the communication as it happens and even trace the employee's personal passwords through the key stroke technology. Once an employer realizes she is poking into an employee's private communications, the law dictates she should immediately cease. This is true even if the employer issued a policy stating that company equipment may be monitored at any time and that the employee should have no expectation of privacy. The problem, of course, is that employees usually never know they're being monitored. "Big Brother's" Insidious Invasion As demonstrated above, an employee's privacy rights depend on a reasonable expectation of privacy given the facts. This "expectation" is dependent on ever-changing societal norms. Thus, the more that monitoring technologies invade our lives, and the more we get used to them, the less we "expect" to have privacy. Privacy thereby erodes until it ceases to exist. Compelling reasons can always be bandied about as justification for the "need" to monitor people. The most compelling reason is to tell us that monitoring is needed for our own safety (to [*23] protect us from killers, rapists, pedophiles, kidnappers, drug gangs), or better yet, that it's a matter of "national security," or protection from terrorists. Instilling a fear of harm, and then offering corporate or government protection to save us all from such harm, is a highly efficient tactic for getting people to enthusiastically give up their rights. And once given up, those rights are irretrievably lost in the graveyard of legal precedent. Think that people aren't getting used to being monitored or even coming to desire it? In Philadelphia, a city councilman has proposed a massive build-out of cameras to help "prevent crime" and plans to obtain voter approval (if voters approve it, legally there can be no "expectation" of privacy in that community). In Baltimore, hundreds of high-tech street cameras have recently been installed. Chicago's nickname could well change from the Windy City to the Surveillance City as the mayor is virtually forcing thousands of businesses to install cameras. Houston is now requiring security cameras as a condition for certain building permits. In fact, millions of dollars in Homeland Security grants are being used, not to fight "terrorists," but to blanket towns across America with an arsenal of spy cameras built by the same companies that build our jets, bombs, and submarines. The federal government even actively targets children to get them used to the idea of being spied on; the National Security Agency, for example, has cartoon characters known as the "CrytoKids" to make a surveillance-society seem cool. Grade schools have tagged children with Radio Frequency Identification tags in California and employed iris-scanning technology in New Jersey on the grounds of keeping our kids "safe" -- and getting them used to being monitored. Parents who refuse to submit are barred from school property. London's Heathrow airport has begun to use eye-scanners to identify travelers (for now, it's "voluntary," but signing up gets you VIP treatment). Also, London has begun to scan all cars and their occupants entering the city and use facial-feature recognition technology (like Las Vegas casinos) to track people randomly on streets. London is not only the most heavily-surveilled city in the world, but the only one with talking cameras which publicly reprimand people for certain behavior ("step away from the curb," "your car is illegally parked," "pick up the tissue you dropped and place it in the receptacle on the Northeast corner"). Anyone who has read Orwell's 1984 will immediately see the eerie, ominous comparison to the ever-watchful telescreen of Big Brother keeping citizens in a fog of fear. In London, as in American cities, the effect of having a network of cameras will ultimately result in the chilling, omnipresent atmosphere of being watched. And once we all have the "expectation" of being constantly watched in an all-pervading web of mass surveillance, by legal definition there can be no "expectation" of privacy. The right of privacy will simply wither away and die. The only way to stop this nightmare from happening is to enact statutes which specifically prohibit the spy activities before they become a societal norm. Otherwise, will there be any legal justification for privacy in the workplace once society is fully conditioned to being monitored, tracked, and recorded 24/7? 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